{"id":75,"date":"2022-11-20T22:21:05","date_gmt":"2022-11-20T22:21:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/chapter\/chapter-8-psychosocial-theory-of-identity-development-2\/"},"modified":"2024-01-17T19:08:40","modified_gmt":"2024-01-17T19:08:40","slug":"chapter-8-psychosocial-theory-of-identity-development-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/chapter\/chapter-8-psychosocial-theory-of-identity-development-2\/","title":{"raw":"Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development","rendered":"Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development"},"content":{"raw":"<p class=\"c1 c8\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: <\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul class=\"c31 lst-kix_g4gukahfxi0l-0 start\">\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Identify key elements of psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain strategies utilized to implement psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Summarize the criticisms of and educational implications of psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain how equity is impacted by psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Identify classroom strategies to support the use of psychosocial theory of identity development.<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Select strategies to support student success utilizing psychosocial theory of identity development. <\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Develop a plan to implement the use of psychosocial theory of identity development.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h6 class=\"c0\"><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 333.66px;height: 221.50px\"><img style=\"width: 333.66px;height: 221.50px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2022\/11\/image2-6.png\" alt=\"\"> <\/span><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.1<\/span><\/h6>\n<p class=\"c1 c8\"><em><strong><span class=\"c5\">SCENARIO:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c29 c7 c6\">Mr. Bates was planning his lesson on the Oregon Trail for his fourth graders. Last year, he used an online curriculum and it all felt a little stale when he tried to deliver it. Kids were kind of bored, which frustrated Mr. Bates because he had followed the trail the prior summer and had interacted with a lot of live history. Mr. Bates loved history, especially local history! This year, he wanted to do something different, something that would allow students maximum choice in their projects in terms of content and \u00a0presentation. \u00a0He also wanted to expose students to the topic in a variety of ways: field trips, film, and the online Oregon Trail game to appeal to all of his diverse learners. Mr. Bates recognized that his kids did not all learn the same way and this had to do with their psychosocial development. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c29 c7 c6\">As you read about Erikson\u2019s psychosocial theory of identity development, consider how options for learning and student choice create opportunities for strong engagement. \u00a0Creating more options and building student autonomy ensures that educators are meeting students where they are!<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Check out the following videos as an introduction:<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Video 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3DSIoKwUcmivk&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116220817&amp;usg=AOvVaw3dDEAJ8MRqXpTksFmvCkPl\">\"Erikson's Psychosocial Development\"<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">\u00a0<\/span><\/h6>\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk[\/embed]\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c4\">Video 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\">\"Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Explained\"\u00a0<\/span><\/h6>\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6XxFmXkD8M8[\/embed]\n<h6 class=\"c0\"><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 216.00px;height: 324.00px\">\n<img class=\"alignnone\" style=\"width: 216.00px;height: 324.00px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2024\/01\/image3-7.png\" alt=\"\"> \u00a0<\/span><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.2: Erik Erikson<\/span><\/h6>\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">INTRODUCTION<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), was born in Germany. He was a world-renowned scholar of the behavioral sciences, and his contributions ranged from psychology to anthropology. Moreover, his two biographies, one of Gandhi, the other a Pulitzer-Prize study of Martin Luther, earned him distinction in literature. Serious students of personality theory underscored his seminal contribution: linking individual development to external forces (structured as the \"Life Cycle,\" the stages ranging from infancy to adulthood). Rather than the negations of pathology, Erikson welcomed the affirmation of human strength, stressing always the potential of constructive societal input in personality development. Erikson's dual concepts of an (individual) ego and group identity have become an integral part of group psychology, with terms such as adolescent \"<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">identity diffusion<\/span><span class=\"c6\">\" or adolescent \"<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">moratorium<\/span><span class=\"c2\">\" having been mainstreamed into everyday language.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">In 1933, when the Nazi power was gaining power in Germany, Erikson, his wife, and young son left for the US. The Eriksons settled first in Boston and Erikson began teaching at Harvard Medical School, in addition to his work under Henry A. Murray at the university's Psychology Clinic. It was here he met Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, Ruth Benedict, and Kurt Lewin. In 1936, Erikson moved to Yale University where he was attached to both the medical school and to the Yale Institute of Human Relations. His first field study of the Sioux Indians in South Dakota was launched from New Haven. The subsequent work with the Yurok Indians, commenced after he had gone to the University of California in 1939 to join Jean MacFarlane's longitudinal study of personality development. During World War II, Erikson did research for the U.S. Government, including an original study of \"Submarine Psychology.\" In 1950, the same year in which his book <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Childhood and Society <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">was published, Erikson resigned from the University of California. Though not a Communist, he refused to sign the loyalty contract stating, that \"...my conscience did not permit me,\" to collaborate with witch hunters. He returned to Harvard in the 1960s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in 1970. <\/span>In 1973 the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities\"> National Endowment for the Humanities <\/a>selected Erikson for the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jefferson_Lecture\"> Jefferson Lecture,<\/a> the United States' highest honor for achievement in the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humanities\"> humanities.<\/a><\/p>\nErikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated by<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson\"> Erik Erikson,<\/a> in collaboration with his wife<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joan_Erikson\"> Joan Erikson <\/a>(Thomas, 1997), is a comprehensive<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychoanalysis\"> psychoanalytic <\/a>theory that identifies a series of eight<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_stage_theories\"> stages,<\/a> in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant\"> infancy <\/a>to late<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adulthood\"> adulthood.<\/a>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to both a natural scheme and one's ecological and cultural upbringing. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (Figure 8.1). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue (Figure 8.1). For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages (Crain, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Figure 8.1: Psychosocial Identity Development Stages, Virtues, and Crisis<\/span><\/h6>\n<table class=\"grid\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"c16\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Stage: Approximate Age<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Virtues<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Psychosocial Crisis<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Significant Relationship<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Existential Question<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Examples<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c25\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Infancy 0-2 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Hope<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Trust vs. Mistrust<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Mother<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I trust the world?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Feeding; Abandonment<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Early Childhood 2-4 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Will<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Autonomy vs.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Shame and Doubt<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Parents<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay to be me?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Toilet Training;<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Clothing<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Themselves<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Preschool Age 4-5 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Purpose<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Initiative vs. Guilt<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Family<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Exploring; Using Tools or Making Art<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">School Age 5-12 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Competence<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Industry<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Inferiority<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Neighbors School<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I make it in the world of people and things?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">School; Sports<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c25\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Adolescence 13-19 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Fidelity<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Identity vs.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Role Confusion<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Peers Role Model<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Who am I? Who can I be?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Social<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Relationships<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Early Adulthood 20-39 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Love<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Intimacy<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Isolation<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Friends Partners<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I love?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Romantic Relationships<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Adulthood 40-64 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Care<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Generativity<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Stagnation<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Household Workmates<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I make my life count?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Work; Parenthood<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c28\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Maturity 65-Death<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Wisdom<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Ego Integrity vs. Despair<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Mankind My kind<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay to have been me?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Reflection on Life<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"c13 c6\">Stages of Psychosocial Identity Development<\/span><\/h2>\n<span class=\"c5\"><strong>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-2 years)\n<\/strong><em>Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?<\/em><\/span>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents\/guardians and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness (Sharkey, 1997). The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child's relative understanding of the world and society comes from the parents and their interaction with the child. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">A child's first trust is always with the parent or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust will result (Bee &amp; Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence (Sharkey, 1997).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust-that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust-that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child's number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee &amp; Boyd, 2009).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c5\"><strong>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 2-4 years)\n<\/strong><\/span><em>Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me?<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy-a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c5\"><strong>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4-5 years)\n<\/strong><em>Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative-independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires (Rao, 2012). <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 5-12 Years)\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority (Erik Erikson's Stages of Social-Emotional Development, n.d.). The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as \"individuals.\" They work hard at \"being responsible, being good and doing it right.\" They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen &amp; Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things-drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Crain, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 Years)\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion-mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society-and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson is credited with coining the term \"identity crisis\" (Gross, 1987, p. 47). Each stage that came before and that follows has its own \"crisis\" but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because \"Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these\" (Wright, 1982, p. 73). This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between \"the person one has come to be\" and \"the person society expects one to become.\" This emerging sense of self will be established by \"forging\" past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change-the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life (Gross, 1987).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Adolescents \"are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world\" (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50). This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of \"identity confusion\" but society normally makes allowances for youth to \"find themselves\" and this state is called \"<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">the moratorium<\/span><span class=\"c2\">.\"<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The challenge of adolescence is one of role confusion-a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions-and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore-what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who they are (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">No matter how one has been raised, one's personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and sometimes parents want to have some input. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing them to 'foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will they be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of \"What have I got?\" and \"What am I going to do with it?\" he or she has established their identity (Gross, 1987). Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity-the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems (Stevens, 1983).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has \"come of age\". In the biographies <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Young Man Luther <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">and <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Gandhi's Truth<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our technological world. That means that we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties (Gross, 1987).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood, 20-39 years)\n<\/span><\/strong><span class=\"c5\"><em>Existential Question: Can I Love?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that \"Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations\" (Erikson, 1950, p. 237).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships-perhaps because of their own needs-a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood, 40-64 years)\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. \"Generativity, then, is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity\" (Erikson, 1950, p. 240).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">During middle age, the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity-a sense of productivity and accomplishment-results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation-a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Central tasks of middle adulthood are to:<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Express love through more than sexual contacts<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Maintain healthy life patterns<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Develop a sense of unity with partner<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Relinquish central role in lives of grown children<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Accept children's mates and friends<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Create a comfortable home<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate\/spouse<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Reverse roles with aging parents<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Adjust to physical changes of middle age<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Use leisure time creatively<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Maturity, 65-Death)\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h6 class=\"c1 c8\"><span class=\"c5\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 455.50px;height: 294.18px\"><img class=\"alignnone\" style=\"width: 455.50px;height: 294.18px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2024\/01\/image1-8.png\" alt=\"\"> \u00a0<span class=\"c6\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Image 8.3<\/span><span class=\"c5\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/h6>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Ninth Stage<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Joan M. Erikson, who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in <\/span><em><span class=\"c6 c7\">The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998). Living in the ninth stage, she wrote, \"old age in one's eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 4). Addressing these new challenges requires \"designating a new ninth stage.\u201d Erikson was ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 105).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Joan Erikson showed that all the eight stages \"are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage\" (Mooney, 2007, p. 78). In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was \"Trust vs. Mistrust\" with Trust being the \"syntonic quotient\" and Mistrust being the \"diatonic\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 106). Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows:<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">In the ninth stage, \"elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities\" because one's \"body inevitably weakens.\" Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that \"while there is light, there is \"hope\" for a \"bright light and revelation\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 106-107).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Ninth stage elders face the \"shame of lost control\" and doubt \"their autonomy over their own bodies.\" So it is that \"shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 107-108).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Industry as a \"driving force\" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being incompetent \"because of aging is belittling\" and makes elders \"like unhappy small children of great age\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 109).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Identity Confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Elders experience confusion about their \"existential identity\" in the ninth stage and \"a real uncertainty about status and role\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 109-110).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">In the ninth stage, the \"years of intimacy and love\" are often replaced by \"isolation and deprivation.\" Relationships become \"overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 110-111).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The generativity in the seventh stage of \"work and family relationships\" if it goes satisfactorily, is \"a wonderful time to be alive.\" In one's eighties and nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, \"a sense of stagnation may well take over\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 111-112).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Integrity imposes \"a serious demand on the senses of elders.\" Wisdom requires capacities that ninth stage elders \"do not usually have.\" The eighth stage includes retrospection that can evoke a \"degree of disgust and despair.\" In the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one's \"loss of capacities and disintegration\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the \"basic trust\" with which \"we are blessed\" (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113). Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development (Erikson, 1950). Erik Erikson believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life (Kail &amp; Cavanaugh, 2004).<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Criticism of the Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. However, Erikson states that each of these processes occur throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these \"phases\" only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Most empirical research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia. Marcia's work (1966) has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.\n\n<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1.424em\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Educational Implications<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers without fear (Hooser, 2010). Teaching Erikson's theory at the different grade levels is important to ensure that students will attain mastery of each stage in Erikson's theory without conflict. There are specific classroom activities that teachers can incorporate into their classroom during the three stages that include school age children. The activities listed below are just a few suggested examples that apply <\/span><span class=\"c2\">psychosocial development.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on developing a hardy personality. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c6\">Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">Preschool Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Let the children be in charge of the learning process when participating in a classroom project. This will exhibit teacher appreciation for the areas of interest of the students as well as confidence in their ability.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Offer continuous feedback on work that has been completed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Do not ridicule or criticize students openly. Find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a positive solution and outcome.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently than the teacher planned.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">7. Utilize physical activity to teach fairness and sportsmanship (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">Teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships at the <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">Elementary Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c2\">Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Elementary Level:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Create a list of classroom duties that need to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list as well as who will be in charge of what.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role playing different situations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach them to hold their head high and move forward.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and\/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">7. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express themselves with a focus on their strengths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">8. Utilize physical activity to build social development and to help students appreciate their own abilities as well as the abilities of others (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">During the <\/span><span class=\"c6\">middle and high school year<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">s<\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\"><em>, building identity and self-esteem should be part of a teacher's focus.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\"><strong>Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the <\/strong><\/span><strong><span class=\"c17 c6\">Middle School and High School Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Treat all students equally. Do not show favoritism to a certain group of students based on gender, race, ability, academic skills, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Incorporate guest speakers and curriculum activities from as many areas as possible so as to expose students to many career choices.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Encourage students to focus on their strengths and acknowledge them when they exhibit work that incorporates these strengths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Encourage students to develop confidence by trying different approaches to solving problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Incorporate life skills into lesson planning to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. Utilize physical activity to help relieve stress, negative feelings and improve moods (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Chapter Discussion Questions: <\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n\n<ul class=\"c31 lst-kix_9boh3vehvcej-0 start\">\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain the benefits of psychosocial theory of identity development to support student success.<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c6 c13\">How would you summarize psychosocial theory of identity development? <\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c6 c17\">How would you <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">use <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">psychosocial theory of identity development <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">to support <\/span><span class=\"c13 c6\">your students? <\/span><\/li>\n \t<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">How is equity related to psychosocial theory of identity development? <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">ATTRIBUTIONS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/67835627@N05\/7301106896&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116286705&amp;usg=AOvVaw3kH8iQqyd2znBc2kx6Y39y\">\"Friends and Family\" <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Mike Watson Images Limited <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287084&amp;usg=AOvVaw3PKBD0XEdl701ero4web3K\">CC BY 2.0<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/citaty.net\/autori\/erik-erikson\/&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287415&amp;usg=AOvVaw0Gr_wfKBDoZGwrnz4vWD-E\">\"Erik Erikson cit\u00e1ty\" <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Wikimedia Commons <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287717&amp;usg=AOvVaw0N1eE0hJhOobhrOgCU53wj\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.3: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Eldre,_Karen_Beate_Nosterud_-_norden.org.jpg&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288096&amp;usg=AOvVaw3-cIdzMwOWEaSA4QV9bUVF\">\"Eldre, Karen Beate Nosterud\" <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Karen Beate N\u00f8sterud <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.5&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288425&amp;usg=AOvVaw2rhurIDsdskUWazUw1CDXL\">CC BY 2.5<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Video 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3DSIoKwUcmivk&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288860&amp;usg=AOvVaw1VXBCeUWZzQ_MUKJro2rYK\">\"Erikson's Psychosocial Development\" <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Shreena Desai<\/span><span class=\"c4\">, <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Khan Academy<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c4\">Video 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3D6XxFmXkD8M8&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116289453&amp;usg=AOvVaw3m6lc7PTkXrMzq7vrxNrWx\">\"Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Explained\" <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Learn My Test<\/span>\n<span class=\"c4\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">REFERENCES<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Allen, E., &amp; Marotz, L. (2003). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Developmental profiles pre-Birth through twelve <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(4th ed.). Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Bee, H., &amp; Boyd, D. (2009, March). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The developing child <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Bianca, A. (2010, June 4). Psychosocial development in physical activity. Retrieved from <\/span>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/about_6587070_psychosocial-development-physical-activity.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116290692&amp;usg=AOvVaw2muwJ9dliivKX6ZOm08DIZ\">http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/about_6587070_psychosocial-development-physical-activity.htm<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Crain, W. (2011). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Theories of development: Concepts and applications <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik Erikson's stages of social-emotional development. (n.d.). Retrieved from<\/span>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/childdevelopmentinfo.com\/child-development\/erickson\/%2523ixzz3ZaBI7RQf&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116291430&amp;usg=AOvVaw1OyGXFsNDk3YENlIbdXEr6\">\u00a0https:\/\/childdevelopmentinfo.com\/child-development\/erickson\/#ixzz3ZaBI7RQf<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development. (n.d.). Retrieved from <\/span>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/web.cortland.edu\/andersmd\/ERIK\/stageint.HTML&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116292025&amp;usg=AOvVaw3988l_7rsdjeTjZo_dDnIw\">http:\/\/web.cortland.edu\/andersmd\/ERIK\/stageint.HTML<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H. (1950). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Childhood and society<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: W.W. Norton.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H. (1956). <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.pep-web.org\/document.php?id%3Dapa.004.0056a&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116293161&amp;usg=AOvVaw0BLZ-N-03BKqL4lgkHFSyv\">\u00a0The problem of ego identity. <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association<\/em>, 4, <\/span><span class=\"c6\">56-121. <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116293713&amp;usg=AOvVaw3LgyEZLAFGvL0EorAiITg0\">doi<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%252F000306515600400104&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116294050&amp;usg=AOvVaw233Bi1jB69FI-E3R6gW7A0\">: 10.1177\/000306515600400104.<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H., &amp; Erikson, J. M. (1998). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The life cycle completed: Extended version. <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: W.W. Norton.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Gross, F. L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Hooser, T. C. V. (2010, November 28). How to apply psychosocial development in the classroom. Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/how_7566430_apply-psychosocial-development-classroom.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116295493&amp;usg=AOvVaw3hcG3kPbsaq0LE0uafgdR_\">http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/how_7566430_apply-psychosocial-development-classroom.html<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Kail, R. V., &amp; Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Human development: A life-span view <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson\/Wadsworth.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Macnow, A. S. (Ed.). (2014). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>MCATbehavioral science review<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Kaplan Publishing.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 3, <\/span><span class=\"c6\">551-558.<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116296401&amp;usg=AOvVaw34-vPizb-h_KY-mWTUDZCo\">doi<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037%252Fh0023281&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116296594&amp;usg=AOvVaw3PTQEpv7PesLkypvFnFy_w\">:10.1037\/h0023281<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Mooney, J. (2007). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erik Erikson<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">In Joe L. Kincheloe &amp; Raymond A. Horn (Eds.), <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The praeger handbook of education and psychology <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(Vol. 1, p. 78). Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c6 c12\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id%3DO1ugEIEid6YC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DThe%2BPraeger%2BHandbook%2Bof%2BEducation%2Band%2BPsychology%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwjWnfK7i_DWAhWDwiYKHdrjAooQ6AEIJjAA%2523v%3Donepage%26q%3DThe%2520Praeger%2520Handbook%2520of%2520Education%2520and%2520Psychology%26f%3Dfalse&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116297661&amp;usg=AOvVaw0b1FlXnWgRNU6JrFK48zyR\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O1ugEIEid6YC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=The+Praeger+Handbook+of+Education+a nd+Psychology&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjWnfK7i_DWAhWDwiYKHdrjAooQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20 Praeger%20Handbook%20of%20Education%20and%20Psychology&amp;f=false<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Rao, A. (Ed.). (2012, July). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Principles and practice of pedodontics <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(3rd ed.). Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id%3DYnaeb6CC8wAC%26pg%3DPA62%26lpg%3DPA62%26dq%3Ddiscourage%2Bthe%2Bpursuit%2Bof%2Bindepende&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116298785&amp;usg=AOvVaw1ESZ7c4mahlC9obLRBOMoD\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ynaeb6CC8wAC&amp;pg=PA62&amp;lpg=PA62&amp;dq=discourage+the+pursuit+of+independe<\/a><\/span>\n<span class=\"c2\">nt+activities+or+dismiss+them+as+silly+and+bothersome,+children+develop+guilt+about+their+needs+and+desires&amp;so<\/span><span class=\"c2\">urce=bl&amp;ots=R-A9YrkvAH&amp;sig=DNUdrJg<\/span><span class=\"c2\">ZsnT96jXA8FipC64eDQ&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjnstb0je_WAhWHQyYKHfkpCXUQ6AEINjAD#v=onepage&amp;q<\/span><span class=\"c2\">=discourage%20the%20pursuit%20of%20independent%20activities%20or%20dismiss%20them%20as%20silly%20and%20bothersome%2C%20children%20develop%20guilt%20about%20their%20needs%20and%20desires&amp;f=false<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sharkey, W. (1997, May). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116299721&amp;usg=AOvVaw24GfDc5jTqhUTCTbQjFFHN\">\u00a0http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm <\/a>\n<\/span>\n<span class=\"c6\">Stevens, R. (1983). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erik Erikson: An introduction<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Thomas, R. M. (1997, August 8). Joan Erikson is dead at 95: Shaped thought on life cycles<em>. <\/em><\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>New York Times<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/1997\/08\/08\/us\/joan-erikson-is-dead-at-95-shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116300489&amp;usg=AOvVaw3Xzej-392P1WYcrfC0XF5D\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/1997\/08\/08\/us\/joan-erikson-is-dead-at-95-shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html.<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Wright, J. E. (1982). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erikson: Identity and religion<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Seabury Press.<\/span><\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">ADDITIONAL READING<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Credible Articles on the Internet:\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Davis, D., &amp; Clifton, A. (1999). Psychosocial theory: Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.haverford.edu\/psych\/ddavis\/p109g\/erikson.stages.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116301789&amp;usg=AOvVaw29kcAuYuddPuB_H94RCJT3\">http:\/\/www.haverford.edu\/psych\/ddavis\/p109g\/erikson.stages.html<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, R. (2010). ULM Classroom Management. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/ulmclassroommanagement.wikispaces.com\/Erik%2BErikson&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116302302&amp;usg=AOvVaw0psjXG8U1d42iPOVs-2BNR\">https:\/\/ulmclassroommanagement.wikispaces.com\/Erik+Erikson<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Krebs-Carter, M. (2008). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Ages in stages: An exploration of the life cycle based on Erik Erikson's eight stages of human development. <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.yale.edu\/ynhti\/curriculum\/units\/1980\/1\/80.01.04.x.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116302980&amp;usg=AOvVaw2aBlhhp-ivkcn-iiFkFvfM\">http:\/\/www.yale.edu\/ynhti\/curriculum\/units\/1980\/1\/80.01.04.x.html<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">McLeod. S. (2017). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Erik-Erikson.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116303666&amp;usg=AOvVaw2Kt1_KLmiySJY4-xekv0bs\">https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Erik-Erikson.html<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Ramkumar, S. (2002). Erik Erikson's theory of development: A teacher's observations. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.journal.kfionline.org\/issue-6\/erik-eriksons-theory-of-development-a-teachers-observations&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116304516&amp;usg=AOvVaw2HHUxvnBIC4NL-tSa1u_8n\">http:\/\/www.journal.kfionline.org\/issue-6\/erik-eriksons-theory-of-development-a-teachers-observations<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sharkey, W. (1997). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116305202&amp;usg=AOvVaw30jqcABgtqA_yITKANnw09\">\u00a0http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm<\/a>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Capps, D. (2004). The decades of life: Relocating Erikson's stages. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Pastoral<\/em> <em>Psychology<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">53(1), 3-32.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Christiansen, S. L., &amp; Palkovitz, R. (1998). Exploring Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: Generativity and its relationship to paternal identity, intimacy, and involvement in childcare. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Men's Studies<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">7(1), 133-156.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Coughlan, F., &amp; Welsh-Breetzke, A. (2002). The circle of courage and Erikson's psychosocial stages. <\/span>\n<span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Reclaiming Children and Youth<\/em>, 10 <\/span><span class=\"c2\">(4), 222-226.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Domino, G., &amp; Affonso, D. D. (1990). A personality measure of Erikson's life stages: The inventory of psychosocial<\/span><span class=\"c6\"> balance. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Personality Assessment<\/em>, 54, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">(3&amp;4), 576-588.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Kidwell, J. S., Dunham, R. M., Bacho, R. A., Pastorino, E., &amp; Portes, P. R. (1995). Adolescent identity exploration: A test of Erikson's theory of transitional crisis. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Adolescence<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">30(120), 785-793.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Books in Dalton State College Library:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sheehy, N. (2004). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Fifty key thinkers in psychology<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Routledge.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Videos and Tutorials:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Khan Academy. (n.d.) Erikson's psychosocial development. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\">\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/test-prep\/mcat\/individuals-and-society\/self-identity\/v\/eriksons-psychosocial-development&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116308898&amp;usg=AOvVaw1h0OuHlXjINUG3qqI1lVVV\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/test-prep\/mcat\/individuals-and-society\/self-identity\/v\/eriksons-psychosocial-development<\/a><\/span><\/p>","rendered":"<p class=\"c1 c8\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: <\/span><\/p>\n<ul class=\"c31 lst-kix_g4gukahfxi0l-0 start\">\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Identify key elements of psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain strategies utilized to implement psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Summarize the criticisms of and educational implications of psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain how equity is impacted by psychosocial theory of identity development<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Identify classroom strategies to support the use of psychosocial theory of identity development.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Select strategies to support student success utilizing psychosocial theory of identity development. <\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Develop a plan to implement the use of psychosocial theory of identity development.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h6 class=\"c0\"><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 333.66px;height: 221.50px\"><img decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 333.66px;height: 221.50px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2022\/11\/image2-6.png\" alt=\"\" \/> <\/span><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.1<\/span><\/h6>\n<p class=\"c1 c8\"><em><strong><span class=\"c5\">SCENARIO:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c29 c7 c6\">Mr. Bates was planning his lesson on the Oregon Trail for his fourth graders. Last year, he used an online curriculum and it all felt a little stale when he tried to deliver it. Kids were kind of bored, which frustrated Mr. Bates because he had followed the trail the prior summer and had interacted with a lot of live history. Mr. Bates loved history, especially local history! This year, he wanted to do something different, something that would allow students maximum choice in their projects in terms of content and \u00a0presentation. \u00a0He also wanted to expose students to the topic in a variety of ways: field trips, film, and the online Oregon Trail game to appeal to all of his diverse learners. Mr. Bates recognized that his kids did not all learn the same way and this had to do with their psychosocial development. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c29 c7 c6\">As you read about Erikson\u2019s psychosocial theory of identity development, consider how options for learning and student choice create opportunities for strong engagement. \u00a0Creating more options and building student autonomy ensures that educators are meeting students where they are!<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Check out the following videos as an introduction:<\/span><\/p>\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Video 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3DSIoKwUcmivk&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116220817&amp;usg=AOvVaw3dDEAJ8MRqXpTksFmvCkPl\">&#8220;Erikson&#8217;s Psychosocial Development&#8221;<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">\u00a0<\/span><\/h6>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Erikson&#39;s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/SIoKwUcmivk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c4\">Video 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\">&#8220;Erik Erikson&#8217;s Theory of Psychosocial Development Explained&#8221;\u00a0<\/span><\/h6>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Erik Erikson&#39;s Theory of Psychosocial Development Explained\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/6XxFmXkD8M8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h6 class=\"c0\"><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 216.00px;height: 324.00px\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" style=\"width: 216.00px;height: 324.00px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2024\/01\/image3-7.png\" alt=\"\" \/> \u00a0<\/span><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.2: Erik Erikson<\/span><\/h6>\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">INTRODUCTION<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), was born in Germany. He was a world-renowned scholar of the behavioral sciences, and his contributions ranged from psychology to anthropology. Moreover, his two biographies, one of Gandhi, the other a Pulitzer-Prize study of Martin Luther, earned him distinction in literature. Serious students of personality theory underscored his seminal contribution: linking individual development to external forces (structured as the &#8220;Life Cycle,&#8221; the stages ranging from infancy to adulthood). Rather than the negations of pathology, Erikson welcomed the affirmation of human strength, stressing always the potential of constructive societal input in personality development. Erikson&#8217;s dual concepts of an (individual) ego and group identity have become an integral part of group psychology, with terms such as adolescent &#8220;<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">identity diffusion<\/span><span class=\"c6\">&#8221; or adolescent &#8220;<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">moratorium<\/span><span class=\"c2\">&#8221; having been mainstreamed into everyday language.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">In 1933, when the Nazi power was gaining power in Germany, Erikson, his wife, and young son left for the US. The Eriksons settled first in Boston and Erikson began teaching at Harvard Medical School, in addition to his work under Henry A. Murray at the university&#8217;s Psychology Clinic. It was here he met Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, Ruth Benedict, and Kurt Lewin. In 1936, Erikson moved to Yale University where he was attached to both the medical school and to the Yale Institute of Human Relations. His first field study of the Sioux Indians in South Dakota was launched from New Haven. The subsequent work with the Yurok Indians, commenced after he had gone to the University of California in 1939 to join Jean MacFarlane&#8217;s longitudinal study of personality development. During World War II, Erikson did research for the U.S. Government, including an original study of &#8220;Submarine Psychology.&#8221; In 1950, the same year in which his book <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Childhood and Society <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">was published, Erikson resigned from the University of California. Though not a Communist, he refused to sign the loyalty contract stating, that &#8220;&#8230;my conscience did not permit me,&#8221; to collaborate with witch hunters. He returned to Harvard in the 1960s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in 1970. <\/span>In 1973 the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities\"> National Endowment for the Humanities <\/a>selected Erikson for the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jefferson_Lecture\"> Jefferson Lecture,<\/a> the United States&#8217; highest honor for achievement in the<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humanities\"> humanities.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s stages of psychosocial development, as articulated by<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson\"> Erik Erikson,<\/a> in collaboration with his wife<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joan_Erikson\"> Joan Erikson <\/a>(Thomas, 1997), is a comprehensive<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychoanalysis\"> psychoanalytic <\/a>theory that identifies a series of eight<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_stage_theories\"> stages,<\/a> in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant\"> infancy <\/a>to late<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adulthood\"> adulthood.<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to both a natural scheme and one&#8217;s ecological and cultural upbringing. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson&#8217;s stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (Figure 8.1). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue (Figure 8.1). For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages (Crain, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n<h6 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Figure 8.1: Psychosocial Identity Development Stages, Virtues, and Crisis<\/span><\/h6>\n<table class=\"grid\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"c16\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Stage: Approximate Age<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Virtues<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Psychosocial Crisis<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Significant Relationship<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Existential Question<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Examples<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c25\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Infancy 0-2 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Hope<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Trust vs. Mistrust<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Mother<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I trust the world?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Feeding; Abandonment<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Early Childhood 2-4 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Will<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Autonomy vs.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Shame and Doubt<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Parents<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay to be me?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Toilet Training;<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Clothing<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Themselves<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Preschool Age 4-5 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Purpose<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Initiative vs. Guilt<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Family<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Exploring; Using Tools or Making Art<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">School Age 5-12 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Competence<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Industry<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Inferiority<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Neighbors School<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I make it in the world of people and things?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">School; Sports<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c25\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Adolescence 13-19 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Fidelity<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Identity vs.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Role Confusion<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Peers Role Model<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Who am I? Who can I be?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Social<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Relationships<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Early Adulthood 20-39 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Love<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Intimacy<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Isolation<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Friends Partners<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I love?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Romantic Relationships<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c23\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Adulthood 40-64 Years<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Care<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Generativity<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">vs. Stagnation<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Household Workmates<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Can I make my life count?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Work; Parenthood<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"c28\">\n<td class=\"c10\" style=\"width: 125px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Maturity 65-Death<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c22\" style=\"width: 90px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Wisdom<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c18\" style=\"width: 113px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Ego Integrity vs. Despair<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c14\" style=\"width: 112px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Mankind My kind<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c19\" style=\"width: 154px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Is it okay to have been me?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"c20\" style=\"width: 149px\" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Reflection on Life<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"c13 c6\">Stages of Psychosocial Identity Development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"c5\"><strong>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-2 years)<br \/>\n<\/strong><em>Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The first stage of Erik Erikson&#8217;s theory centers around the infant&#8217;s basic needs being met by the parents\/guardians and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one&#8217;s own trustworthiness (Sharkey, 1997). The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child&#8217;s relative understanding of the world and society comes from the parents and their interaction with the child. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">A child&#8217;s first trust is always with the parent or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant&#8217;s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child&#8217;s basic needs; a sense of mistrust will result (Bee &amp; Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence (Sharkey, 1997).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust-that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust-that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child&#8217;s number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee &amp; Boyd, 2009).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c5\"><strong>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 2-4 years)<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><em>Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me?<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents&#8217; patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy-a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c5\"><strong>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4-5 years)<br \/>\n<\/strong><em>Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people&#8217;s plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children&#8217;s efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative-independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires (Rao, 2012). <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 5-12 Years)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority (Erik Erikson&#8217;s Stages of Social-Emotional Development, n.d.). The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as &#8220;individuals.&#8221; They work hard at &#8220;being responsible, being good and doing it right.&#8221; They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen &amp; Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things-drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers&#8217; and parents&#8217; expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Crain, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 Years)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one&#8217;s meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion-mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society-and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson is credited with coining the term &#8220;identity crisis&#8221; (Gross, 1987, p. 47). Each stage that came before and that follows has its own &#8220;crisis&#8221; but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because &#8220;Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these&#8221; (Wright, 1982, p. 73). This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between &#8220;the person one has come to be&#8221; and &#8220;the person society expects one to become.&#8221; This emerging sense of self will be established by &#8220;forging&#8221; past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person&#8217;s life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change-the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one&#8217;s own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life (Gross, 1987).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Adolescents &#8220;are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world&#8221; (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50). This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of &#8220;identity confusion&#8221; but society normally makes allowances for youth to &#8220;find themselves&#8221; and this state is called &#8220;<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">the moratorium<\/span><span class=\"c2\">.&#8221;<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The challenge of adolescence is one of role confusion-a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions-and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore-what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who they are (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">No matter how one has been raised, one&#8217;s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and sometimes parents want to have some input. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing them to &#8216;foreclose&#8217; on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will they be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of &#8220;What have I got?&#8221; and &#8220;What am I going to do with it?&#8221; he or she has established their identity (Gross, 1987). Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity-the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems (Stevens, 1983).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one&#8217;s fidelity, to feel that one has &#8220;come of age&#8221;. In the biographies <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Young Man Luther <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">and <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Gandhi&#8217;s Truth<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood&#8217;s tasks in our technological world. That means that we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn&#8217;t happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one&#8217;s twenties (Gross, 1987).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood, 20-39 years)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><span class=\"c5\"><em>Existential Question: Can I Love?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that &#8220;Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one&#8217;s intimate relations&#8221; (Erikson, 1950, p. 237).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships-perhaps because of their own needs-a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood, 40-64 years)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. &#8220;Generativity, then, is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation&#8230; the concept is meant to include&#8230; productivity and creativity&#8221; (Erikson, 1950, p. 240).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">During middle age, the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity-a sense of productivity and accomplishment-results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation-a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Central tasks of middle adulthood are to:<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Express love through more than sexual contacts<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Maintain healthy life patterns<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Develop a sense of unity with partner<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Relinquish central role in lives of grown children<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Accept children&#8217;s mates and friends<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Create a comfortable home<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate\/spouse<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Reverse roles with aging parents<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Adjust to physical changes of middle age<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">\u2022 Use leisure time creatively<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Maturity, 65-Death)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><em><span class=\"c5\">Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me?<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).<\/span><\/p>\n<h6 class=\"c1 c8\"><span class=\"c5\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"overflow: hidden;margin: 0.00px 0.00px;border: 0.00px solid #000000;width: 455.50px;height: 294.18px\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" style=\"width: 455.50px;height: 294.18px;margin-left: 0.00px;margin-top: 0.00px\" title=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/56\/2024\/01\/image1-8.png\" alt=\"\" \/> \u00a0<span class=\"c6\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Image 8.3<\/span><span class=\"c5\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/h6>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c5\">Ninth Stage<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Joan M. Erikson, who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in <\/span><em><span class=\"c6 c7\">The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998). Living in the ninth stage, she wrote, &#8220;old age in one&#8217;s eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 4). Addressing these new challenges requires &#8220;designating a new ninth stage.\u201d Erikson was ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 105).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Joan Erikson showed that all the eight stages &#8220;are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage&#8221; (Mooney, 2007, p. 78). In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was &#8220;Trust vs. Mistrust&#8221; with Trust being the &#8220;syntonic quotient&#8221; and Mistrust being the &#8220;diatonic&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 106). Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">In the ninth stage, &#8220;elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities&#8221; because one&#8217;s &#8220;body inevitably weakens.&#8221; Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that &#8220;while there is light, there is &#8220;hope&#8221; for a &#8220;bright light and revelation&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 106-107).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Ninth stage elders face the &#8220;shame of lost control&#8221; and doubt &#8220;their autonomy over their own bodies.&#8221; So it is that &#8220;shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 107-108).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Industry as a &#8220;driving force&#8221; that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being incompetent &#8220;because of aging is belittling&#8221; and makes elders &#8220;like unhappy small children of great age&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, p. 109).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Identity Confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Elders experience confusion about their &#8220;existential identity&#8221; in the ninth stage and &#8220;a real uncertainty about status and role&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 109-110).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">In the ninth stage, the &#8220;years of intimacy and love&#8221; are often replaced by &#8220;isolation and deprivation.&#8221; Relationships become &#8220;overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 110-111).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">The generativity in the seventh stage of &#8220;work and family relationships&#8221; if it goes satisfactorily, is &#8220;a wonderful time to be alive.&#8221; In one&#8217;s eighties and nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, &#8220;a sense of stagnation may well take over&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 111-112).<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c5\">Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom<\/span><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Integrity imposes &#8220;a serious demand on the senses of elders.&#8221; Wisdom requires capacities that ninth stage elders &#8220;do not usually have.&#8221; The eighth stage includes retrospection that can evoke a &#8220;degree of disgust and despair.&#8221; In the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one&#8217;s &#8220;loss of capacities and disintegration&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the &#8220;basic trust&#8221; with which &#8220;we are blessed&#8221; (Erikson &amp; Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113). Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development (Erikson, 1950). Erik Erikson believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life (Kail &amp; Cavanaugh, 2004).<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Criticism of the Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Erikson&#8217;s theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. However, Erikson states that each of these processes occur throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these &#8220;phases&#8221; only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Most empirical research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia. Marcia&#8217;s work (1966) has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.<\/p>\n<p><\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1.424em\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Educational Implications<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers without fear (Hooser, 2010). Teaching Erikson&#8217;s theory at the different grade levels is important to ensure that students will attain mastery of each stage in Erikson&#8217;s theory without conflict. There are specific classroom activities that teachers can incorporate into their classroom during the three stages that include school age children. The activities listed below are just a few suggested examples that apply <\/span><span class=\"c2\">psychosocial development.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on developing a hardy personality. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c6\">Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">Preschool Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Let the children be in charge of the learning process when participating in a classroom project. This will exhibit teacher appreciation for the areas of interest of the students as well as confidence in their ability.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Offer continuous feedback on work that has been completed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Do not ridicule or criticize students openly. Find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a positive solution and outcome.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently than the teacher planned.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">7. Utilize physical activity to teach fairness and sportsmanship (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">Teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships at the <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">Elementary Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">. <\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c2\">Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Elementary Level:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Create a list of classroom duties that need to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list as well as who will be in charge of what.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role playing different situations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach them to hold their head high and move forward.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and\/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">7. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express themselves with a focus on their strengths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">8. Utilize physical activity to build social development and to help students appreciate their own abilities as well as the abilities of others (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><em><span class=\"c6\">During the <\/span><span class=\"c6\">middle and high school year<\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">s<\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\"><em>, building identity and self-esteem should be part of a teacher&#8217;s focus.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\"><strong>Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the <\/strong><\/span><strong><span class=\"c17 c6\">Middle School and High School Level<\/span><span class=\"c2\">:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">1. Treat all students equally. Do not show favoritism to a certain group of students based on gender, race, ability, academic skills, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">2. Incorporate guest speakers and curriculum activities from as many areas as possible so as to expose students to many career choices.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">3. Encourage students to focus on their strengths and acknowledge them when they exhibit work that incorporates these strengths.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">4. Encourage students to develop confidence by trying different approaches to solving problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">5. Incorporate life skills into lesson planning to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">6. Utilize physical activity to help relieve stress, negative feelings and improve moods (Bianca, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Chapter Discussion Questions: <\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul class=\"c31 lst-kix_9boh3vehvcej-0 start\">\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">Explain the benefits of psychosocial theory of identity development to support student success.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c6 c13\">How would you summarize psychosocial theory of identity development? <\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c6 c17\">How would you <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">use <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">psychosocial theory of identity development <\/span><span class=\"c17 c6\">to support <\/span><span class=\"c13 c6\">your students? <\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"c1 c3 li-bullet-0\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">How is equity related to psychosocial theory of identity development? <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">ATTRIBUTIONS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/67835627@N05\/7301106896&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116286705&amp;usg=AOvVaw3kH8iQqyd2znBc2kx6Y39y\">&#8220;Friends and Family&#8221; <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Mike Watson Images Limited <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287084&amp;usg=AOvVaw3PKBD0XEdl701ero4web3K\">CC BY 2.0<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/citaty.net\/autori\/erik-erikson\/&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287415&amp;usg=AOvVaw0Gr_wfKBDoZGwrnz4vWD-E\">&#8220;Erik Erikson cit\u00e1ty&#8221; <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Wikimedia Commons <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116287717&amp;usg=AOvVaw0N1eE0hJhOobhrOgCU53wj\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Image 8.3: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Eldre,_Karen_Beate_Nosterud_-_norden.org.jpg&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288096&amp;usg=AOvVaw3-cIdzMwOWEaSA4QV9bUVF\">&#8220;Eldre, Karen Beate Nosterud&#8221; <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Karen Beate N\u00f8sterud <\/span><span class=\"c4\">is licensed under <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.5&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288425&amp;usg=AOvVaw2rhurIDsdskUWazUw1CDXL\">CC BY 2.5<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Video 8.1: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3DSIoKwUcmivk&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116288860&amp;usg=AOvVaw1VXBCeUWZzQ_MUKJro2rYK\">&#8220;Erikson&#8217;s Psychosocial Development&#8221; <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Shreena Desai<\/span><span class=\"c4\">, <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Khan Academy<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c4\">Video 8.2: <\/span><span class=\"c9 c4\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v%3D6XxFmXkD8M8&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116289453&amp;usg=AOvVaw3m6lc7PTkXrMzq7vrxNrWx\">&#8220;Erik Erikson&#8217;s Theory of Psychosocial Development Explained&#8221; <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c4\">by <\/span><span class=\"c4 c21\">Learn My Test<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c4\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><span class=\"c13 c6\">REFERENCES<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Allen, E., &amp; Marotz, L. (2003). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Developmental profiles pre-Birth through twelve <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(4th ed.). Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Bee, H., &amp; Boyd, D. (2009, March). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The developing child <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Bianca, A. (2010, June 4). Psychosocial development in physical activity. Retrieved from <\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/about_6587070_psychosocial-development-physical-activity.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116290692&amp;usg=AOvVaw2muwJ9dliivKX6ZOm08DIZ\">http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/about_6587070_psychosocial-development-physical-activity.htm<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Crain, W. (2011). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Theories of development: Concepts and applications <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik Erikson&#8217;s stages of social-emotional development. (n.d.). Retrieved from<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/childdevelopmentinfo.com\/child-development\/erickson\/%2523ixzz3ZaBI7RQf&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116291430&amp;usg=AOvVaw1OyGXFsNDk3YENlIbdXEr6\">\u00a0https:\/\/childdevelopmentinfo.com\/child-development\/erickson\/#ixzz3ZaBI7RQf<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erik Erikson&#8217;s 8 stages of psychosocial development. (n.d.). Retrieved from <\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/web.cortland.edu\/andersmd\/ERIK\/stageint.HTML&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116292025&amp;usg=AOvVaw3988l_7rsdjeTjZo_dDnIw\">http:\/\/web.cortland.edu\/andersmd\/ERIK\/stageint.HTML<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H. (1950). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Childhood and society<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: W.W. Norton.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H. (1956). <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.pep-web.org\/document.php?id%3Dapa.004.0056a&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116293161&amp;usg=AOvVaw0BLZ-N-03BKqL4lgkHFSyv\">\u00a0The problem of ego identity. <\/a><\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association<\/em>, 4, <\/span><span class=\"c6\">56-121. <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116293713&amp;usg=AOvVaw3LgyEZLAFGvL0EorAiITg0\">doi<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%252F000306515600400104&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116294050&amp;usg=AOvVaw233Bi1jB69FI-E3R6gW7A0\">: 10.1177\/000306515600400104.<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, E. H., &amp; Erikson, J. M. (1998). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The life cycle completed: Extended version. <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: W.W. Norton.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c2\">Gross, F. L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Hooser, T. C. V. (2010, November 28). How to apply psychosocial development in the classroom. Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/how_7566430_apply-psychosocial-development-classroom.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116295493&amp;usg=AOvVaw3hcG3kPbsaq0LE0uafgdR_\">http:\/\/www.ehow.com\/how_7566430_apply-psychosocial-development-classroom.html<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Kail, R. V., &amp; Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Human development: A life-span view <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson\/Wadsworth.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Macnow, A. S. (Ed.). (2014). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>MCATbehavioral science review<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Kaplan Publishing.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 3, <\/span><span class=\"c6\">551-558.<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116296401&amp;usg=AOvVaw34-vPizb-h_KY-mWTUDZCo\">doi<\/a><\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037%252Fh0023281&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116296594&amp;usg=AOvVaw3PTQEpv7PesLkypvFnFy_w\">:10.1037\/h0023281<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Mooney, J. (2007). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erik Erikson<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">In Joe L. Kincheloe &amp; Raymond A. Horn (Eds.), <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">The praeger handbook of education and psychology <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(Vol. 1, p. 78). Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c6 c12\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id%3DO1ugEIEid6YC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DThe%2BPraeger%2BHandbook%2Bof%2BEducation%2Band%2BPsychology%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwjWnfK7i_DWAhWDwiYKHdrjAooQ6AEIJjAA%2523v%3Donepage%26q%3DThe%2520Praeger%2520Handbook%2520of%2520Education%2520and%2520Psychology%26f%3Dfalse&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116297661&amp;usg=AOvVaw0b1FlXnWgRNU6JrFK48zyR\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O1ugEIEid6YC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=The+Praeger+Handbook+of+Education+a nd+Psychology&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjWnfK7i_DWAhWDwiYKHdrjAooQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20 Praeger%20Handbook%20of%20Education%20and%20Psychology&amp;f=false<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Rao, A. (Ed.). (2012, July). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Principles and practice of pedodontics <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c2\">(3rd ed.). Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id%3DYnaeb6CC8wAC%26pg%3DPA62%26lpg%3DPA62%26dq%3Ddiscourage%2Bthe%2Bpursuit%2Bof%2Bindepende&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116298785&amp;usg=AOvVaw1ESZ7c4mahlC9obLRBOMoD\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ynaeb6CC8wAC&amp;pg=PA62&amp;lpg=PA62&amp;dq=discourage+the+pursuit+of+independe<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c2\">nt+activities+or+dismiss+them+as+silly+and+bothersome,+children+develop+guilt+about+their+needs+and+desires&amp;so<\/span><span class=\"c2\">urce=bl&amp;ots=R-A9YrkvAH&amp;sig=DNUdrJg<\/span><span class=\"c2\">ZsnT96jXA8FipC64eDQ&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjnstb0je_WAhWHQyYKHfkpCXUQ6AEINjAD#v=onepage&amp;q<\/span><span class=\"c2\">=discourage%20the%20pursuit%20of%20independent%20activities%20or%20dismiss%20them%20as%20silly%20and%20bothersome%2C%20children%20develop%20guilt%20about%20their%20needs%20and%20desires&amp;f=false<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sharkey, W. (1997, May). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116299721&amp;usg=AOvVaw24GfDc5jTqhUTCTbQjFFHN\">\u00a0http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm <\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c6\">Stevens, R. (1983). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erik Erikson: An introduction<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">New York, NY: St. Martin&#8217;s Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Thomas, R. M. (1997, August 8). Joan Erikson is dead at 95: Shaped thought on life cycles<em>. <\/em><\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>New York Times<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c6\">Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/1997\/08\/08\/us\/joan-erikson-is-dead-at-95-shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116300489&amp;usg=AOvVaw3Xzej-392P1WYcrfC0XF5D\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/1997\/08\/08\/us\/joan-erikson-is-dead-at-95-shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html.<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Wright, J. E. (1982). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Erikson: Identity and religion<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Seabury Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"c1 c32\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">ADDITIONAL READING<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Credible Articles on the Internet:\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Davis, D., &amp; Clifton, A. (1999). Psychosocial theory: Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.haverford.edu\/psych\/ddavis\/p109g\/erikson.stages.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116301789&amp;usg=AOvVaw29kcAuYuddPuB_H94RCJT3\">http:\/\/www.haverford.edu\/psych\/ddavis\/p109g\/erikson.stages.html<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Erikson, R. (2010). ULM Classroom Management. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/ulmclassroommanagement.wikispaces.com\/Erik%2BErikson&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116302302&amp;usg=AOvVaw0psjXG8U1d42iPOVs-2BNR\">https:\/\/ulmclassroommanagement.wikispaces.com\/Erik+Erikson<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Krebs-Carter, M. (2008). <\/span><em><span class=\"c7 c6\">Ages in stages: An exploration of the life cycle based on Erik Erikson&#8217;s eight stages of human development. <\/span><\/em><span class=\"c6\">Retrieved from <\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.yale.edu\/ynhti\/curriculum\/units\/1980\/1\/80.01.04.x.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116302980&amp;usg=AOvVaw2aBlhhp-ivkcn-iiFkFvfM\">http:\/\/www.yale.edu\/ynhti\/curriculum\/units\/1980\/1\/80.01.04.x.html<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">McLeod. S. (2017). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Erik-Erikson.html&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116303666&amp;usg=AOvVaw2Kt1_KLmiySJY4-xekv0bs\">https:\/\/www.simplypsychology.org\/Erik-Erikson.html<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Ramkumar, S. (2002). Erik Erikson&#8217;s theory of development: A teacher&#8217;s observations. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.journal.kfionline.org\/issue-6\/erik-eriksons-theory-of-development-a-teachers-observations&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116304516&amp;usg=AOvVaw2HHUxvnBIC4NL-tSa1u_8n\">http:\/\/www.journal.kfionline.org\/issue-6\/erik-eriksons-theory-of-development-a-teachers-observations<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sharkey, W. (1997). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116305202&amp;usg=AOvVaw30jqcABgtqA_yITKANnw09\">\u00a0http:\/\/www.muskingum.edu\/~psych\/psycweb\/history\/erikson.htm<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Capps, D. (2004). The decades of life: Relocating Erikson&#8217;s stages. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Pastoral<\/em> <em>Psychology<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">53(1), 3-32.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Christiansen, S. L., &amp; Palkovitz, R. (1998). Exploring Erikson&#8217;s psychosocial theory of development: Generativity and its relationship to paternal identity, intimacy, and involvement in childcare. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Men&#8217;s Studies<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">7(1), 133-156.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Coughlan, F., &amp; Welsh-Breetzke, A. (2002). The circle of courage and Erikson&#8217;s psychosocial stages. <\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Reclaiming Children and Youth<\/em>, 10 <\/span><span class=\"c2\">(4), 222-226.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Domino, G., &amp; Affonso, D. D. (1990). A personality measure of Erikson&#8217;s life stages: The inventory of psychosocial<\/span><span class=\"c6\"> balance. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Journal of Personality Assessment<\/em>, 54, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">(3&amp;4), 576-588.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Kidwell, J. S., Dunham, R. M., Bacho, R. A., Pastorino, E., &amp; Portes, P. R. (1995). Adolescent identity exploration: A test of Erikson&#8217;s theory of transitional crisis. <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Adolescence<\/em>, <\/span><span class=\"c2\">30(120), 785-793.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Books in Dalton State College Library:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Sheehy, N. (2004). <\/span><span class=\"c7 c6\"><em>Fifty key thinkers in psychology<\/em>. <\/span><span class=\"c2\">New York, NY: Routledge.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><strong><span class=\"c13 c6\">Videos and Tutorials:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"c1\"><span class=\"c6\">Khan Academy. (n.d.) Erikson&#8217;s psychosocial development. Retrieved from<\/span><span class=\"c12 c6\"><br \/>\n<a class=\"c11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?q=https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/test-prep\/mcat\/individuals-and-society\/self-identity\/v\/eriksons-psychosocial-development&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1668986116308898&amp;usg=AOvVaw1h0OuHlXjINUG3qqI1lVVV\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/test-prep\/mcat\/individuals-and-society\/self-identity\/v\/eriksons-psychosocial-development<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-75","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/75","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/75\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":76,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/75\/revisions\/76"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/75\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=75"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=75"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=75"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.hccfl.edu\/learningtheory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=75"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}