Glossary
CHAPTER 1
Behaviorism– observable and measurable aspects of human behavior; A change in behavior resulting in stimulus-response behaviors
Classical conditioning- a type of learning behavior that occurs unconsciously through association with a certain stimulus
Operant conditioning– a type of learning behavior that can be strengthened by rewards or punishments
Positive reinforcement- the presentation of a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a response
Negative reinforcement- increasing the likelihood of a response that removes or prevents an adverse condition
Punishment– presenting a strong stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response
Extinction– decreases the likelihood of a response by withdrawing a previously reinforced stimulus
Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired behavior is broken down into discrete positive movements, each of which is reinforced as it progresses towards the overall behavioral goal.
Cueing is providing a student with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the appropriateness of a behavior.
Behavior Modification- the process of changing a person’s behavior by using different techniques (ie, reinforcement, punishment, shaping, cueing, etc)
CHAPTER 2
Schema- background knowledge or lived experiences- connecting to the schema of a student improves their engagement and understanding
Assimilation- modifying information to fit into what we already know (our schemas)
Accommodation- when a person modifies what they already know so new information fits in better
Equilibrium-per Piaget’s theory, seeking order when being uncomfortable with contradictions and/or inconsistencies in knowledge structures.
CHAPTER 3
Self-efficacy-a person’s belief that they are capable to perform certain behaviors that lead to a desired performance outcome
Self-regulation- controlling one’s emotions and thoughts to achieve certain goals or perform certain behaviors
Reciprocal determinism- Bandura’s idea that states that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a learning theory based on the idea that people learn by observing others.
Cognition– how someone takes in information and processes it, related to their experiences.
Reciprocal Triadic Relationship-the environment, behavior, and cognition which operate as a triad, a group of three connected things that influence one another.
Agentic- a person’s ability to control their actions
Personal Agency-The understanding that one’s own actions can influence the environment
Modeling- when a person observes another person’s behavior and then imitates that behavior
CHAPTER 4
Imitative learning– where one person tries to imitate or copy another.
Instructed learning– which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate.
Collaborative learning– which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993).
Internalization- the internal acceptance of external social values, attitudes, or beliefs as one’s own.
Introjection- a process in which an individual unconsciously incorporates attitudes, values, or qualities of another person or a part of another person’s personality into the self
Socialization- the process by which a person acquires social skills, beliefs, and values which conform to societal norms.
Zone of Proximal Development- the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky, year).
Scaffolding- the role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level’ (Raymond, 2000).
CHAPTER 5
Androcentric- focused or centered on males
Gynocentric– focused or centered on females
Character Education– a learning process that enables students and adults in a school community to understand, care about, and act on core ethical values such as respect, justice, civic virtue and citizenship, and responsibility for self and others.
Emotional Environment– the tone of an atmosphere (like in a classroom) and how people relate to one another
CHAPTER 6
Holistic-looking at a whole person or situation, not just one aspect
CHAPTER 7
Proximal processes-active experiences a person participates in with other people, objects, or symbols
Proximal– next to or near something
Laissez-faire- a policy of letting things take their own course, without interfering; Translated to English from French, this means “allow to do”
Socioemotional: developing emotional skills that allow a person to relate to society
CHAPTER 8
Identity diffusion- occurs in adolescence when a person is not actively seeking to identify or define their personality traits or view of self
Moratorium- refers to a period in adolescence where a person is actively seeking to define one’s identity
CHAPTER 9- no vocab needed
CHAPTER 10- no vocab needed
CHAPTER 11
Prepotent- having exceptional power or influence
Cognitive- the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses
Conative- desiring or striving to know
Psychopathogenesis– the origin of a psychological disorder
CHAPTER 12
Iconic memory- the storage of what we see
Echoic memory- the storage of what we hear
Tactile– related to touch
Olfactory– related to smell
Gustatory– related to taste
Rehearsal– repetition in the role of memory
Metacognition– awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes
Elaboration– the process of interpreting or embellishing information to be remembered or of relating it to other material already known and in memory
Stasis– a state of inactivity or equilibrium
Metamemory– understanding of one’s own memory and how it works
Encoding– the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory
Cognitive Load– the amount of information that working memory can hold at one time
