Chapter 5: International Conflict and War- Wakanda Forever?

5.2: Causes of War: Economic, Political, and Ideological Factors

Why do wars begin? It’s one of the most enduring and essential questions in political science. Understanding the causes of war requires us to look beyond the battlefield and into the economic, political, and ideological forces that drive states and societies into conflict. Wars are rarely about a single issue; they often arise from a tangled web of resource competition, internal disputes, and competing worldviews. The Marvel film Black Panther provides a rich narrative for exploring these dynamics, as it portrays Wakanda grappling with resource scarcity, internal power struggles, and clashing ideologies about how to wield its immense power. By examining concepts like ethical realism, internal conflict, and ideological warfare through the lens of the film, we can better understand the real-world forces that spark and sustain wars. Before we dive into our discussion on war, let’s take a look at a video that asks the poingant question: “Is war over?”

It’s often said that politics is the art of the possible, but ethical realism asks an even tougher question: how do we decide what’s right in a world where perfect solutions are rare? Ethical realism, a concept in international relations, focuses on balancing pragmatic decision-making with moral considerations, recognizing that justice and peace often require compromises that fall short of ideal outcomes. In Black Panther, T’Challa embodies this principle as he grapples with Wakanda’s role on the global stage. Remaining isolated would protect Wakanda’s security and resources, but it would also mean turning a blind eye to global inequality and suffering. Conversely, sharing vibranium risks exploitation, yet it could uplift marginalized communities and address systemic injustices. Ethical realism acknowledges these difficult trade-offs, emphasizing that leadership is often about choosing the least harmful option rather than a perfect one. Historically, leaders like Nelson Mandela faced similar dilemmas during South Africa’s transition from apartheid, where the need for justice had to be balanced with reconciliation to maintain stability. T’Challa’s ultimate decision to open Wakanda to the world reflects this delicate balancing act.

Sometimes, the greatest threats to a country’s security come not from foreign enemies, but from within its own borders. Political instability occurs when a state’s internal structures—its institutions, leadership, and legal systems—are too weak or compromised to effectively govern. This instability often manifests through corruption, civil unrest, contested legitimacy, and a breakdown in the rule of law. When citizens lose faith in their government’s ability to provide basic services, ensure justice, or maintain security, public discontent can quickly turn into protest, rebellion, or even full-scale civil war. Fragile or dysfunctional institutions struggle to manage competing interests peacefully, creating a power vacuum that can be exploited by armed groups, criminal organizations, or rival factions. In these environments, the state’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force begins to erode—leaving room for chaos, violence, and authoritarian responses.

Recent examples like Syria and Libya highlight how political instability can spiral into devastating conflict. In both cases, long-standing authoritarian regimes were challenged by popular uprisings, but the absence of strong, inclusive institutions made peaceful transitions impossible. The result was a descent into violent civil war, worsened by external interventions and deep internal divisions—ethnic, tribal, sectarian, and ideological. These cases illustrate how instability is not just a domestic issue; it can spill across borders, create regional insecurity, and draw in international actors. Understanding the roots of political instability is essential for analyzing the broader spectrum of conflict. It helps explain how societies fragment, how grievances escalate, and why some conflicts take the form of ethnic strife, ideological rebellion, or prolonged insurgency—topics we’ll explore more deeply in the sections that follow.

While ethical realism guides leaders in addressing external challenges, internal conflict often disrupts states from within, creating instability that can spill over into broader wars. Internal conflict refers to struggles within a state, often fueled by ideological, political, or ethnic divisions. In Black Panther, Wakanda’s internal conflict is embodied in the clash between T’Challa and Killmonger, whose radically different visions for Wakanda’s future escalate into a full-blown crisis. T’Challa represents cautious progressivism, maintaining traditions while slowly adapting to a changing world. Killmonger, shaped by his experiences of systemic racism and oppression outside Wakanda, advocates for aggressive intervention, arming oppressed peoples worldwide to overthrow existing power structures. Their battle is not just for the throne but for the soul of Wakanda, reflecting how internal divisions can threaten national unity. Real-world examples like the Syrian Civil War demonstrate how internal conflicts destabilize states, often drawing in external powers and escalating into international crises. In Syria, competing visions of governance—authoritarianism versus democratic reform—led to a brutal conflict with regional and global repercussions. Wakanda’s resolution of its internal conflict, with T’Challa incorporating aspects of Killmonger’s vision into his own policies, illustrates the importance of compromise in preventing internal disputes from escalating further. However, not all conflicts are driven by ideology or power struggles; often, they are sparked by something more tangible: competition for scarce resources.

The world has a finite amount of valuable resources and states know this. Resource scarcity has been a catalyst for conflict throughout history, as states and groups vie for control over limited supplies of essential goods like oil, water, or minerals. In Black Panther, vibranium—a resource unique to Wakanda—symbolizes both great opportunity and great risk. Its scarcity makes Wakanda immensely powerful but also vulnerable to exploitation if outsiders discover its existence. Historically, similar dynamics have played out in the global competition for oil. For example, disputes over access to oil in the Middle East have fueled wars and rivalries for decades, with superpowers and regional actors alike seeking to control this vital resource. Water scarcity is another flashpoint, particularly in regions like the Nile River Basin, where upstream and downstream states clash over access and rights. Resource scarcity often exacerbates existing tensions, making conflicts over governance, ethnicity, or ideology even more volatile. In Wakanda’s case, the fear of vibranium falling into the wrong hands underscores the broader risks of resource competition. This dynamic connects directly to another long-standing driver of war: imperialism, which often uses resource competition as a pretext for territorial expansion and dominance.

Imperialism, the extension of a state’s authority through territorial acquisition or economic domination, has been a significant cause of conflict throughout history. In Black Panther, Wakanda is unique in that it has never been colonized, allowing it to retain control over its resources and sovereignty. This contrasts sharply with the history of Africa, where imperial powers carved up the continent during the Scramble for Africa, exploiting its land and resources for their own gain. Killmonger’s ideology represents a reversal of traditional imperialism: instead of being exploited, he envisions Wakanda as the dominant force, using its vibranium to overthrow colonial powers and establish global control. This mirrors historical anti-imperialist movements, such as those led by figures like Patrice Lumumba or Kwame Nkrumah, who sought to reclaim African sovereignty and resist foreign domination. However, Wakanda’s story also highlights the long-term consequences of imperialism, as Killmonger’s anger is fueled by the systemic injustices and inequalities left in its wake. These historical scars often intersect with other divisions, such as ethnic conflict, which further destabilize regions and drive states into war.

When identities become battlegrounds, the consequences can be as explosive as any war fought over territory or power. Ethnic conflict emerges when divisions between groups defined by shared language, culture, religion, or ancestry intensify into hostility and violence. These tensions are often rooted in long histories of marginalization, colonial borders that forced rival groups into shared states, or nationalist ideologies that elevate one group at the expense of others. In some cases, such as the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, centuries of ethnic hierarchy and colonial manipulation between Hutus and Tutsis laid the groundwork for one of the most horrific mass killings in modern history. Similarly, the Balkan Wars of the 1990s saw ethnic Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks clash violently after the collapse of Yugoslavia, as competing nationalisms and historical grievances reignited under the pressure of political fragmentation. These conflicts are rarely isolated—they’re often exacerbated by external powers seeking influence, or by competition over vital resources like land, oil, or water, which intensify group rivalries. At the same time, ethnic conflicts are often inseparable from ideological struggles, as competing groups not only fight for survival or recognition but also seek to define the future political and moral order of the state.

Many of the world’s most significant conflicts have been driven by ideological warfare, where competing political or social systems clash on a global scale. In Black Panther, the ideological battle between T’Challa and Killmonger is central to the story: T’Challa advocates for cautious, cooperative progress, while Killmonger seeks radical revolution. This mirrors real-world ideological struggles like those during the Cold War, where capitalism and ideological warfare communism competed for dominance, often through proxy wars in countries like Vietnam, Korea, and Afghanistan. Ideological warfare often polarizes states, making it difficult to find common ground. However, T’Challa’s eventual willingness to adopt parts of Killmonger’s ideology—such as Wakanda’s responsibility to address global injustices—demonstrates the potential for compromise and ideological synthesis. This resolution offers a powerful lesson: while ideological differences can spark conflict, they can also pave the way for innovative solutions when leaders are willing to listen and adapt.

By examining the causes of war through the lens of Black Panther, we can see how economic, political, and ideological forces interact to drive conflict. From resource competition to internal divisions and ideological clashes, the factors that lead to war are deeply interconnected. Understanding these dynamics not only helps us make sense of the past but also equips us to address the challenges of the present and envision pathways to peace in the future.