Glossary of Key Terms

Temporary courts established to prosecute crimes committed in specific conflicts, such as the tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, which addressed war crimes and genocide.

A legal method of resolving disputes where a third party makes a binding decision based on international law or agreed-upon principles.

A theoretical form of AI with the ability to understand, learn, and perform any intellectual task that a human can do, demonstrating adaptability and general reasoning across diverse domains.

The development of machines and systems capable of performing tasks that require human intelligence, such as decision-making and problem-solving, with significant implications for economic and military dominance.

An individual who seeks refuge in another country due to persecution or conflict, but whose claim for refugee status has not yet been evaluated, making them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.

A form of conflict in which a weaker opponent uses unconventional tactics, such as guerrilla warfare or terrorism, to combat a more powerful military force.

A political system in which individual freedoms are subordinated to the authority of the state, often associated with harsh treatment of marginalized groups.

The use of technology to perform tasks without human intervention, leading to concerns about job displacement and economic inequality.

The protection of diverse ecosystems and species, which is critical to sustainability agreements that aim to preserve natural habitats and counter environmental degradation.

The manipulation of biological systems and organisms to develop technologies that impact health, agriculture, and security, including bioweapons and genetic engineering.

The use of military or heavily armed forces to control national borders, often leading to human rights violations and the endangerment of migrants seeking refuge.

A market-based policy to reduce pollution by allowing companies to buy and sell emissions credits, incentivizing lower emissions through economic competition.

The release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from activities like burning fossil fuels, contributing to global warming and requiring coordinated international policies to reduce.

The total amount of greenhouse gases produced by human activities, which international agreements like the Paris Agreement aim to reduce at both national and global levels.

An economic system aimed at eliminating waste by continually reusing, repairing, and recycling products and materials, contrasting with the traditional linear "take, make, dispose" economy.

Fundamental rights and freedoms, such as privacy and free expression, that protect individuals from government overreach and unwarranted interference.

The sphere of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, autonomous from the state, and composed of a diverse array of non-governmental organizations, community groups, and movements that advocate for various interests, values, and public causes.

An internal armed conflict between groups within a country, often driven by political, territorial, ethnic, or ideological disputes.

The long-term alteration of temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human activities like fossil fuel burning and deforestation, posing a major political and environmental challenge.

The use of threats or limited force to influence another state's behavior, often seen as an application of hard power.

As a type of government, a centralized, one-party system where the state controls all major resources and production, aiming to eliminate private ownership and achieve economic equality, often with limited political freedoms.

A societal emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of goods, often leading to environmental harm, resource depletion, and unsustainable production and waste practices.

Traditional large-scale military conflict between states, involving regular armies and standard military equipment such as tanks, aircraft, and infantry.

The dominance of multinational corporations over governments and economies where corporations wield more power than states.

Measures taken by states or organizations to prevent, respond to, and mitigate the effects of terrorism. These strategies range from military action to intelligence gathering and community engagement.

The domination of one culture over others, often a result of globalism, where powerful nations impose their cultural values on marginalized communities, erasing or undermining local traditions.

A form of soft power where a state's culture or values are used to influence others, for example, the global spread of American culture.

The belief that human rights are not universal and should be interpreted within the cultural, historical, and religious context of each society.

Legal norms that have developed over time through consistent state practice and are accepted as binding, even without formal treaties.

The use of digital attacks by states or non-state actors to damage or disrupt the information systems of other nations, with significant implications for international security.

The protection of computer systems and networks from theft, damage, or manipulation, essential to securing the global digital infrastructure in a world increasingly reliant on AI.

The process of reducing global interconnectedness, marked by declining international trade, reduced cross-border investments, and nations reasserting control over domestic industries.

Programs and initiatives designed to rehabilitate individuals who have been radicalized, aiming to reduce the appeal of extremist ideology.

A movement that advocates for the intentional downsizing of economic activities to achieve ecological sustainability and reduce consumption-driven environmental harm.

A political system in which power is derived from the people, typically through free and fair elections, with governance based on principles of majority rule, individual rights, and rule of law.

The process of undermining the stability of a society, government, or institution, often through political, economic, or social disruption.

The idea that states should have control over the data and digital infrastructure within their borders, leading to debates over internet regulation, cybersecurity, and the power of global tech companies.

Acts of terrorism that occur within a state’s borders and are carried out by its own citizens, often motivated by ideological, political, or social grievances.

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for surveillance or military strikes, changing the nature of warfare by allowing states to conduct operations with reduced human risk.

The illegal production, distribution, and sale of narcotics, often involving international cartels that destabilize countries and finance other criminal activities, including terrorism.

The failure of an ecosystem due to human activities like pollution, habitat destruction, and deforestation, causing irreversible damage and unsustainable living conditions.

The ability of a state or individual to maintain stable income or resources to support a standard of living, especially in the face of global crises such as pandemics or financial collapses.

The deterioration of the natural environment through the depletion of resources, pollution, and the destruction of ecosystems, often resulting in reduced quality of life and unsustainable conditions.

The movement that advocates for fair treatment of all people regardless of race, income, or nationality in addressing environmental issues, often highlighting how pollution disproportionately affects marginalized communities.

The responsible management, conservation, and protection of the environment to ensure its health and sustainability for future generations.

Wars that stem from tensions or hostilities between different ethnic groups within or between states, often driven by nationalism or historical grievances.

A far-right authoritarian ideology characterized by dictatorial power, extreme nationalism, suppression of political opposition, and a focus on state control and unity often under a single-party regime.

The deliberate use of intimidation, threats, or violence to manipulate behavior and create a sense of insecurity within a population.

A term used to describe the restrictive immigration policies of European nations, aimed at preventing migrants from entering, often at the expense of human security and humanitarian protection.

A type of AI designed to produce new content—such as text, images, or music—by learning patterns and structures from existing data.

A term describing the global network of NGOs, activists, and advocacy groups that influence international policymaking and promote human security and development.

Involves the cooperation of international actors to address global issues that transcend national borders.

The ideology or policy of embracing globalization, encouraging open borders, free trade, and cultural exchange, which can both benefit and harm marginalized communities depending on how it is managed.

The increasing interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures across the globe.

An economic model that aims to reduce environmental risks and ecological scarcities, while promoting sustainable development and reducing carbon emissions.

Rights that protect the collective interests of specific groups, such as indigenous peoples or ethnic minorities, often clashing with universal approaches that emphasize individual rights.

The use of military force or economic sanctions by a state to coerce others, reflecting direct means of influence.

A concept that shifts the focus from the security of states to the protection of individuals from widespread threats, such as disease, environmental disasters, and economic hardship.

The illegal trade of humans for the purposes of forced labor, sexual exploitation, or other forms of exploitation, posing a major transnational threat to global security.

The use of diplomatic or military means by states or international organizations to prevent or respond to large-scale human rights violations, such as those faced by marginalized communities during conflicts or crises.

A strategy that combines conventional military force with irregular tactics, such as cyberattacks or disinformation campaigns, to disrupt an enemy.

The political movements and issues arising from the shared experiences, histories, and interests of specific social groups, often based on race, gender, sexuality, or religion, advocating for rights, recognition, and representation.

Conflicts driven by ideological differences, such as capitalism vs. communism, or democracy vs. authoritarianism, often seen in Cold War proxy wars.

A political ideology that combines elements of authoritarian governance with a rejection of liberal democratic norms, often paired with nationalist and populist movements.

The policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political dominance over other nations, often a factor in the causes of war.

Rules and organizations that structure state behavior and facilitate cooperation in international relations.

A rebellion or uprising against an established authority or government, often using guerrilla tactics, sabotage, and political unrest to weaken state control.

The primary judicial body of the United Nations, responsible for settling legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on international legal questions.

A permanent international tribunal established to prosecute individuals for war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity, holding leaders accountable for human rights violations.

The collective effort of states, international organizations, and non-state actors to address global environmental issues through treaties, conventions, and collaborative action.

A set of rules and norms governing the interactions between states, aimed at reducing anarchy and promoting cooperation.

Organizations composed of multiple states that work together to manage global issues (e.g., UN, WTO).

The measures taken by states and international organizations to ensure mutual survival and safety, often involving responses to threats like war, terrorism, and global disasters.

Interventionism is a foreign policy where a state engages in the affairs of other countries, often for strategic, humanitarian, or ideological reasons. It can stabilize conflicts or provoke backlash, depending on context.

The authority of a court or tribunal to hear a case and make legal judgments, often debated in international courts when addressing cases of state sovereignty and human rights abuses.

A previous international agreement under the UNFCCC that set binding emission reduction targets for developed countries, marking one of the first coordinated global efforts to address climate change.

An IR theory that emphasizes cooperation, international institutions, and interdependence among states as ways to mitigate conflict.

Acts of terrorism carried out by individuals acting independently of any terrorist group, often radicalized through online propaganda.

The process by which certain groups are pushed to the edges of society, deprived of power, resources, and opportunities.

A method of conflict resolution in which a neutral third party helps the conflicting sides to reach an agreement, without taking direct action in the conflict.

The movement of people across borders, often driven by economic, political, or environmental factors, with significant implications for human security and state policies toward refugees and immigrants.

The process of making illegally-gained money appear legal, often used by transnational criminal organizations to finance further illicit activities.

The film explores the tension between states acting alone (unilateralism) versus collaborating with others (multilateralism) to control powerful forces like superheroes.

Large corporations that operate in multiple countries, often exerting significant economic and political influence.

A doctrine where both sides in a conflict possess enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other, thus deterring war due to the catastrophic consequences.

A group of people who share common cultural, historical, linguistic, or ethnic characteristics and often seek self-governance.

The goals or objectives of a state, often related to security, economic well-being, or influence.

Independent organizations that work to protect human rights, advocate for marginalized communities, and provide services such as food, shelter, and legal aid to vulnerable populations.

Independent organizations that work to address global issues like human rights, environmental protection, and humanitarian aid.

Entities that influence international relations but are not states, including NGOs, multinational corporations, and terrorist groups.

The deployment of neutral forces, usually under the UN, to conflict zones to prevent violence and maintain peace during a ceasefire or political transition.

A potential future state where countries pull back from deep global economic integration, leading to more regionalized trade blocs and localized production networks.

The idea that humanity can be transformed or replaced by technology, challenging traditional concepts of human nature and political authority.

The ability of a state to influence others and achieve its objectives through military, economic, or diplomatic means.

A military attack launched with the belief that an enemy is planning an imminent attack, aiming to neutralize the threat before it materializes.

Where two or more external powers support opposing sides or factions within another country's civil war, insurgency, or interstate conflict. Rather than engaging directly, these external powers provide financial, military, or logistical support to their preferred side(s) to pursue their own geopolitical interests without the high costs and risks of direct intervention.

A technology that utilizes quantum mechanics to perform calculations at unprecedented speeds, with potential to revolutionize cryptography and defense systems, altering the balance of power in international security.

A large-scale displacement of people fleeing persecution, conflict, or natural disasters.

Legal protections and assistance granted to refugees and displaced persons under international law.

The use of terrorism to promote religious objectives, often by groups that interpret religious texts as justification for violence.

Energy derived from natural processes that are continuously replenished, such as wind, solar, and hydropower, considered key to achieving sustainability and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Conflicts that arise from competition over natural resources, such as oil, water, or minerals, which can drive states to war.

A global commitment to prevent mass atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing by ensuring that the international community intervenes when national governments fail to protect their populations.

An approach to justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior through reconciliation and community involvement, often used in post-conflict settings to address human rights violations.

The renewed rise of nationalist ideologies that emphasize self-reliance and often reject globalist approaches, seen in many countries through protectionist policies and anti-immigration rhetoric.

The principle that people have the right to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development, reflecting debates on national sovereignty and human rights.

A political movement that emphasizes national identity, anti-immigration policies, and protectionism, often advocating for policies that marginalize minority groups or refugees in the name of national security.

A situation where one state's efforts to increase its security make other states feel less secure, leading to an escalation of arms and mistrust.

In an anarchic international system, the principle that states must rely on their own resources for security.

A combination of hard and soft power strategies, where states use both coercion and diplomacy to achieve international goals.

As a political system, the state controls major industries to reduce inequality, allowing some private ownership, unlike communism, which seeks a fully classless society with no private property.

The ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction, often using cultural or ideological influence rather than coercion.

The principle that states have supreme authority within their territorial borders and are not subject to external interference.

The scientific exploration of outer space, with implications for international cooperation as well as competition over resources such as rare minerals found on asteroids or the Moon.

The development of military capabilities in space, such as satellite-based weapon systems and missile defense, which could escalate tensions between major powers.

The geopolitical competition between countries to achieve superiority in space exploration, historically seen during the Cold War and potentially re-emerging as nations invest in space programs.

Terrorist activities that are directly or indirectly supported by a state, often for political or strategic purposes.

A politically organized body of people that usually occupies a definite territory, and is often characterized by formal institutions of government, laws, and sovereignty. The term state is often used interchangeably with country. 

The condition of not being considered a citizen by any country, leaving individuals without access to legal rights, social services, or protection, a key challenge for marginalized communities.

The condition of not being considered a citizen by any country, leaving individuals without access to legal rights, social services, or protection, a key challenge for marginalized communities.

A political entity with defined borders, a permanent population, a sovereign government, and recognition from other states, making it a central actor in global politics.

A government or political system that extensively monitors and collects data on its citizens, often to maintain control, enforce laws, or address security concerns, sometimes at the expense of privacy and civil liberties.

The monitoring of communications, financial transactions, and movements to track and disrupt terrorist activities, a key tool in modern counterterrorism.

The principle of meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, promoting long-term ecological balance.

A set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015 to address interconnected challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental protection, all aimed at achieving a more sustainable and equitable world by 2030.

The use of lethal force against specific individuals suspected of being involved in terrorism, often through drone strikes, raising legal and ethical concerns.

The hypothetical point where AI surpasses human intelligence, creating a scenario where machines could dominate or replace human decision-making.

The use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives.

Informal negotiations and conflict resolution efforts that involve non-governmental actors, scholars, or civil society groups working alongside official diplomatic efforts.

Networks of NGOs, activists, and international organizations that collaborate across borders to promote human rights, often focusing on marginalized communities and vulnerable populations.

Companies that operate across borders and play a role in international economic relations.

Criminal activities that occur across national borders, often involving complex networks engaged in drug trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling, and money laundering.

A state's approach to foreign policy that emphasizes acting independently to pursue its own interests, rather than seeking cooperation, consensus, or alliances with other nations. 

An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among states, playing a central role in global governance.

The idea that certain rights, such as freedom from torture and the right to life, apply to all people, regardless of their culture, nationality, or context.

Commonly known as drones, these are used for surveillance and targeted strikes against terrorist organizations.

The modern international order that emerged after the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, emphasizing state sovereignty and territorial integrity.

The fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers, leading to discrimination and exclusionary policies.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service more efficiently than any other country using the same resources.

A formal agreement between two or more states to cooperate on military, economic, or political matters, often for mutual defense.

Unlike realism, constructivists view anarchy as a socially constructed concept that can be transformed by changing state identities and interactions.

A system of racial segregation and discrimination that lasted from 1948 to 1994

International agreements or policies that focus on managing and limiting the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, distribution, and deployment of weapons to prevent escalation, maintain stability, and reduce the risks associated with armed conflict.

A competitive buildup of military capabilities between states, often driven by fear of falling behind rivals in terms of power.

A regional organization promoting political and economic cooperation among Southeast Asian nations, focused on maintaining regional stability and security.

A concept where power is distributed among multiple states to prevent any single state from dominating the international system.

A form of nationalism where national identity is defined by shared political values, citizenship, and commitment to the state's institutions.

An internal armed conflict between groups within a country, often driven by political, territorial, ethnic, or ideological disputes.

The principle that an attack on one member of a military alliance, such as NATO, is considered an attack on all members, ensuring mutual protection.

A system where states agree to jointly respond to threats or aggression against any one member, as seen in alliances like NATO.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than others, even if it doesn’t have an absolute advantage.

Financial assistance provided by one country or international organization to another, with conditions attached that require the recipient to implement specific policies or reforms.

A theory that emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping state behavior and the international system.

The idea that multinational corporations have ethical obligations to contribute to social good, such as environmental sustainability or fair labor practices, beyond their profit motives.

The process by which international organizations and states coordinate actions to address and resolve global emergencies, essential in response scenarios depicted in the case studies.

A broad approach in IR that critiques traditional theories like realism and liberalism, emphasizing issues of inequality, power structures, and emancipation.

The spread of ideas, values, and culture across borders, often driven by multinational corporations and media, leading to homogenization of global cultures.

Legal norms that have developed over time through consistent state practice and are accepted as binding, even without formal treaties.

A region or entity that operates as an independent state without official recognition by the international community (e.g., Taiwan).

The forgiveness or restructuring of debt owed by developing countries to international lenders, often tied to efforts to promote economic stability and development in struggling economies.

The idea that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other due to shared norms, values, and institutional constraints.

A Marxist theory that suggests wealthy nations exploit poorer ones, creating a global economic system of dependency that hinders development in less industrialized countries.

A strategy where states use the threat of retaliation, particularly with nuclear weapons, to prevent an adversary from initiating conflict.

The process of reducing, limiting, or completely eliminating a country's armed forces, military weapons, or particular classes of weaponry, often with the goal of promoting peace, security, and stability.

The use of trade and financial restrictions by one country or group of countries to exert pressure on another country, often as a form of punishment or to influence policy changes.

Balances pragmatic decision-making with moral considerations, recognizing that states often face complex, imperfect choices in pursuing security and justice.

A form of nationalism where the state is defined by shared ethnicity, culture, and descent.

A regional organization promoting political and economic integration among European countries, aimed at maintaining stability, democracy, and economic growth in the region.

A state that is unable to provide basic government functions such as security, rule of law, and public services, often resulting in widespread instability.

A movement promoting equitable trading practices that ensure fair wages, safe working conditions, and sustainable practices for producers in developing countries.

A theory that focuses on how international relations affect women and how gender dynamics influence global politics, security, and power relations.

Investment made by a company or individual in one country into business interests located in another country, a key driver of economic globalization.

The unrestricted exchange of goods and services between countries, often promoted by globalization to increase economic efficiency and growth.

The notion that traditional definitions of security focus on state-level threats and often overlook how global issues like war, poverty, and environmental degradation disproportionately affect women.

A series of international treaties that establish humanitarian laws during armed conflict, particularly protecting civilians, prisoners of war, and soldiers who are no longer participating in hostilities.

How geography and resources shape power and international relations, influencing conflicts, trade, and strategic decisions.

Collaborative efforts of countries and international organizations to address shared challenges and pursue common goals that transcend national borders.

The collective management of international problems and crises through cooperation among states, international organizations, and non-state actors.

The worldwide network of production and distribution processes used by companies to produce goods, often leading to complex interdependencies between countries.

The increasing interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures across the globe.

The use of military force, economic sanctions, or coercion to influence the behavior of other states.

The dominance of one state or group of states in the international system, often maintained through alliances and military superiority.

The attempt to safeguard individuals from abuse, discrimination, and violence—whether by their own governments or external forces

Assistance provided by NGOs and international organizations to address crises such as natural disasters, conflict, or disease outbreaks, often critical in global governance.

The idea that globalization has reached a stage where global economic forces override national sovereignty, creating a world where economic activity is increasingly transnational.

The ability to shape global outcomes by influencing beliefs, values, and perceptions rather than relying on material strength.

Shared expectations about appropriate behavior among states, which can influence international relations (e.g., norms against the use of nuclear weapons).

A condition where states are economically reliant on each other, reducing the likelihood of conflict because war would disrupt mutually beneficial trade.

Involves disputes within a country, often over ideology, identity, or power, such as civil wars or political crises with both domestic and global repercussions.

The set of rules and norms that govern relations between states, promoted by the UN and other international organizations to maintain global order.

The study of interactions among states and non-state actors in the international system.

Efforts by countries to cooperate on space exploration and research, such as the International Space Station (ISS), which fosters peaceful international collaboration in scientific endeavors.

A political movement aimed at reclaiming or reuniting lands historically or ethnically related to one's nation.

A foreign policy approach where a country chooses to remain apart from international affairs and conflicts.

A theory that views international relations primarily through the lens of economic class struggles, focusing on the exploitation of the working class by capitalist powers.

An economic theory focused on maximizing a nation's wealth and power by promoting exports, limiting imports, and hoarding precious metals.

A temporary alliance of states formed to achieve specific military objectives, such as the coalition in the Gulf War.

The excessive market power held by a single corporation or a few corporations in a specific industry, allowing them to control prices, wages, and access to resources.

A political entity characterized by a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states, where the population predominantly shares a common identity as a nation.

A political ideology that emphasizes loyalty and devotion to the nation, often placing the interests of the nation above others and seeking political independence or unity.

A process in which conflicting parties come together to discuss and settle disputes peacefully, often leading to treaties or ceasefires.

An economic theory that promotes protectionist policies, government regulation of the economy, and the accumulation of wealth through trade surpluses and the hoarding of precious resources.

A form of indirect control where powerful states or corporations dominate the economies of less powerful states.

A theory of globalization that promotes free markets, deregulation, and privatization as means of fostering global economic growth and development.

A fundamental human rights principle that individuals should not be discriminated against based on race, religion, gender, or nationality.

Belief that all people should be treated equally and fairly, without prejudice based on their characteristics

Independent organizations that work to address global issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and development, often influencing international policies.

A military alliance of Western countries formed in 1949 to provide collective security against the Soviet Union, now focusing on broader security issues, including terrorism and cyber threats.

The relocation of a company’s business processes or production to another country to reduce costs, often leading to debates about labor standards and economic sovereignty.

A 1967 international treaty that forms the foundation of space law, prohibiting the placement of weapons of mass destruction in space and ensuring that outer space is used for peaceful purposes.

An international treaty adopted in 2015 under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aimed at limiting global warming to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.

The idea that politics is shaped by historically male-dominated institutions and that this influences state behavior and power dynamics.

A broader process aimed at preventing the recurrence of conflict through rebuilding political, economic, and social institutions after war or civil strife.

Missions carried out by the UN to help countries transition from conflict to peace, often involving neutral military forces and diplomatic efforts.

The lack of stability in a state's government, often due to corruption, civil unrest, or weak institutions, which can make states more prone to war.

The introduction of harmful substances into the environment, affecting air, water, and land quality, and creating political conflicts over regulation and responsibility.

A situation where all parties can benefit, creating mutual gains rather than competition or conflict.

The use of tariffs, quotas, and regulations to restrict imports and protect domestic industries from foreign competition, often seen as a counter to globalization.

Where two or more external powers support opposing sides or factions within another country's civil war, insurgency, or interstate conflict. Rather than engaging directly, these external powers provide financial, military, or logistical support to their preferred side(s) to pursue their own geopolitical interests without the high costs and risks of direct intervention.

An entity that lacks full sovereignty or recognition but has some characteristics of statehood, such as territorial control or a population seeking independence.

A situation where countries compete to attract foreign investment by lowering labor standards, wages, and environmental regulations, driven by multinational corporations seeking higher profits.

The process by which individuals come to adopt extreme political, social, or religious beliefs that justify the use of violence to achieve goals.

An IR theory emphasizing the competitive and conflictual side of international relations, focusing on power, national interest, and state survival in an anarchic system.

A member of a Muslim people inhabiting western Burma (Myanmar)

The pursuit of political independence by a region or group within a state, seeking to create a new, sovereign state.

A group of states or actors that share a strong sense of mutual trust and common identity, resolving conflicts peacefully and ruling out the use of war against one another as a means of dispute.

A situation where one state's actions to increase its security lead to other states feeling less secure, potentially causing an arms race.

Targeted economic measures aimed at specific individuals, companies, or sectors of a country’s economy to minimize harm to the general population while pressuring the leadership.

International structures and relationships are shaped by shared ideas, norms, and identities rather than material forces.

The ability to influence others through attraction and persuasion, such as cultural influence or diplomacy, rather than force.

A fictional multilateral agreement proposed in the film to regulate superhero activity, reflecting real-world debates over international regulation of powerful entities such as WMDs.

The principle that states have the authority to govern themselves without external interference, often challenged by international law when addressing human rights abuses or war crimes.

Efforts to create or strengthen the political institutions of a state, typically in post-conflict or post-colonial settings to ensure long-term stability.

A state's ability to effectively design and implement policies, enforce laws, deliver public services, and maintain order within its territory. It represents the state's capability to mobilize resources, provide for its citizens, and address internal and external challenges.

A political entity with defined borders, a permanent population, a sovereign government, and recognition from other states, making it a central actor in global politics.

The delegation of authority from individual states to a higher organizational level, as seen in the EU where member states transfer some sovereignty to EU institutions.

The use of legal strategies by multinational corporations to minimize their tax burden, often by shifting profits to low-tax jurisdictions, contributing to global inequality.

Job loss caused by technological advancements, such as when automation and AI replace human labor.

The use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives.

The removal or reduction of barriers to trade, such as tariffs and quotas, to encourage global economic integration.

Networks of activists, organizations, and individuals operating across borders to promote causes, influence policy, and advocate social change. These networks enable collaboration among NGOs, social movements, academics, and private citizens to address global issues like human rights, environmental protection, labor rights, and social justice.

Issues that cross national borders, such as climate change, terrorism, or alien invasions in fiction, which require global cooperation due to their impact on multiple countries.

The increasing interaction and interdependence between states and non-state actors across borders, which can challenge the traditional notion of state sovereignty.

A formal agreement between states that is legally binding under international law, such as treaties that address environmental protection, trade, or human rights.

A landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament

A body within the UN where all member states are represented, providing a forum for debate on global issues but lacking binding decision-making power.

The body within the UN responsible for maintaining international peace and security, often criticized for its power structure, where five permanent members hold veto power.

Assumption that a state behaves as a single, cohesive entity in international relations, making decisions based on national interest without internal divisions or competing interests.

A document that defines the fundamental rights and freedoms of all people. It was adopted by the United Nations in 1948

A 1948 UN document that outlines fundamental human rights deemed to apply to all people globally, foundational to modern international human rights law.

Highly destructive weapons—nuclear, chemical, biological, or radiological—that can cause large-scale harm to people, infrastructure, and the environment, often indiscriminately and with long-lasting effects.

A theory that views the global economy as divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations, with wealthier nations exploiting poorer ones for labor and resources.

The dislike of, or prejudice against, people from other countries.

When one state's gain directly results in another state's loss, with no net benefit for both parties.